Prepare for your Anatomy and Physiology exam with these practice questions and answers. This comprehensive guide covers all body systems, organ functions, and physiological processes.
Q: anatomy
Answer: the study of form and structure
Q: physiology
Answer: the study of body functions
Q: anatomical position
Answer: means that the upper body is standing erect, face forward, with the upper limbs at the side and the palms forward.
Q: homeostasis
Answer: a state of balance in which the body’s internal environment remains in the normal range
Q: anterior/ventral
Answer: pertaining to the front
Q: posterior/dorsal
Answer: toward the back
Q: superior
Answer: a body part that is above another part or is closer to the head
Q: inferior
Answer: below another body part or towards the feet
Q: medial
Answer: toward or near the midline
Q: lateral
Answer: pertaining to the side
Q: Midsagittal/ median plane
Answer: a plane that lies directly in the midline making two exact halves
Q: Frontal planes
Answer: divide the body into anterior and posterior parts
Q: Transverse plane
Answer: runs horizontally from right to left, dividing the body into superiour and inferior parts
Q: Sagittal Plane
Answer: a vertical plane that divides the body into right and left parts
Q: negative feedback mechanism
Answer: a mechanism activated by an imbalance that corrects the imbalance
Q: Cranial Cavity
Answer: in the skill, encases the brain
Q: Vertebral/Spinal Cavity
Answer: runs within the bony vertebral column, encloses the delicate spinal cord
Q: Thoracic Cavity
Answer: surrounded by the ribs and muscles of the chest, contains heart and lungs
Q: Abdominal Cavity
Answer: contains the stomach, intestines, spleen, liver and other organs
Q: Abdominopelvic Cavity
Answer: contains the abdominal cavity and the pelvic cavity
Q: Pelvic Cavity
Answer: contains the urinary bladder, some reproductive organs and the rectum
Q: Serous Membrane
Answer: a thin, double-layered membrane lining the walls of the ventral body cavity and the outer surfaces of the organs it contains
Q: Positive feedback mechanism
Answer: the result or response enhances the original stimulus so that the response is accelerated
Q: CT/computed tomography
Answer: Uses refined x-ray equipment. Translates info into a detailed, cross-sectional picture of each bod region scanned. Usually used when examining brain and abdomen. Greatest value has been its ability to virtually eliminate exploratory surgery.
Q: PET/positron emission tomography
Answer: Excels in observing metabolic processes. The patient is given an injection of radioisotopes tagged to biological molecules (such as glucose) and then placed in the scanner. As the radioisotopes are absorbed by the most active brain cells, high-energy gamma rays are produced. The computer analyzes the gamma rays and produces a live-action picture of the brains biochemical activity in vivid colors. Greatest value has been its ability to provide insight into the brain activity of people with mental illness, stroke, Alzheimer’s, etc.
Q: MRI/magnetic resonance imaging
Answer: Produces high-contrast images of our soft tissues. Primarily maps the body’s content of hydrogen, most of which is in water. It distinguishes body tissues based on their water content, so it can differentiate between the fatty white matter and the more watery gray matter of the brain. Particularly good at detecting tumors and degenerative deseases. Also, multiple sclerosis plaques are dazzlingly clear. This technique subjects the body to magnetic fields up to 60,000 times stronger than that of the earth to pry information from the body’s molecules.
Q: Water
Answer: Most abundant and important inorganic compound in living material. Makes up 60-80% of the volume of most living cells.
Q: Properties of Water
Answer: 1. High heat capacity2. High heat of vaporization3. Polar solvent properties4. Reactivity5. Cushioning
Q: Acids
Answer: a substance that releases hydrogen ions and anions. Regarded to as Proton Donors.
Q: Bases
Answer: Dissociate to produce hydroxide ions and canionc. Proton acceptors.
Q: pH
Answer: the measure of the acidity or basicity of the solution or substance, or the measure of the hydrogen ion concentration in it. Scale -> 1-14. 1-6 Acidic, 7 Neutral, 8-14 Basic
Q: Carbohydrates
Answer: a group of molecules that contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Includes sugars and starches. Can be classified into 3 groups: Monosaccharides (one sugar), Disaccharides (two sugars) or Polysaccharides (many sugars). Easy and available cellular food.
Q: Lipids
Answer: contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen elements like carbohydrates. Typically they are not soluble in water, but are soluble in organic solvents, such as alcohol and ether.
Q: Proteins
Answer: made from amino acids. composes 10-30% of cell mass and is the basic structural material for the body. Plays a big role in cell function.
Q: Nucleic acids
Answer: are DNA and RNA; these are made up of nucleotides. Nucleotides consists of a phosphate, a pentose sugar and a nitrogeneous base.
Q: Organic compounds essential for life
Answer: 1. Carbohydrates2. Lipids3. Proteins4. Nucleic Acids
Q: Fibrous proteins
Answer: extended and strand like, chief building materials of the body; also knows as structural proteins
Q: Globular proteins
Answer: compact, spherical proteins that have at least tertiary structure; also known as functional proteins
Q: Enzymes
Answer: biological catalysts, they are proteins. named according to their functions and their subtrates; name ends in -ase.
Q: Chaperones
Answer: help proteins to achieve their functional three-dimensional structure
Q: Double helix
Answer: a molecule coiled into a spiral staircase like structure
Q: ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
Answer: the primary energy-transferring molecule in cells and it provides a form on energy that is immediately usable by all body cells
Q: cell theory
Answer: 1. A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life. So cell properties are the properties of life.2. The activity of an organism depends on the activity of the cells in it3. The biochemical activities of cells are dictated by the relative number of their sub-cellular structures4. Continuity of life from one generation to another has a cellular basis
Q: 4 structural levels of protein
Answer: primary (straight chain of amino acids); secondary (the chain contains folds, spiral or helical shape); tertiary (globular tightly coiled chain of amino acids); quaternary (two or more globular units of amino acid chains)
Q: plasma membrane
Answer: thin flexible barrier that regulates what enters and exits the cell; composed of two layers of lipids
Q: phospholipid bilayer
Answer: double layer of phospholipids that makes up plasma and organelle membranes
Q: Integral proteins
Answer: Firmly inserted into the lipid bilayer. Most are transmembrane proteins that span the entire width of the membrane and protrude on both sides
Q: Peripheral proteins
Answer: Not embedded in the lipid. Attach loosely only to integral proteins and are easily removed without disrupting the membrane
Q: Glycocalyx
Answer: Sugar coat. The fuzzy, sticky, carbohydrate-rich area at the cell surface.
Q: Tight junction
Answer: a series of integral protein molecules in the plasma membranes of adjacent cells fuse together, forming an impermeable junction that encircles the cell
Q: Desmosomes
Answer: Anchoring junctions. Mechanical couplings scattered like rivets along the sides of abutting cells that prevent their separation
Q: Gap junction
Answer: A communicating junction between adjacent cells. The adjacent plasma membranes are very close, and the cells are connected by hollow cylinders called connexons
Q: Mucus membrane
Answer: lines body cavities that open to the exterior. They are wet or moist membranes bathed by secretions
Q: Diffusion
Answer: the tendency of molecules or ions to move from an area where they are in a higher concentration to an area where they are in lower concentration
Q: Channels
Answer: transmembrane proteins that serve to transport substances, usually ions or water, through aqueous channels from one side of the membrane to the other
Q: osmosis
Answer: diffusion of a solvent, such as water, through a selectively permeable membrane
Q: Aquaporins
Answer: water-specific channels constructed by transmembrane proteins
Q: Passive transport through plasma
Answer: diffusion and filtration are the two main types. Also performed using kinetic energy
Q: Active transport through plasma
Answer: Requires carrier proteins that combine specifically and reversibly with he transport substances. Performed using ATP energy.
Q: Smaller units of DNA and RNA
Answer: Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Cytosine (C), Guanine (G) and Uracil (U)
Q: DNA
Answer: located in the nucleus (control center) of the cell; constitutes the genetic material, genes. Has two fundamental roles: reproduces itself before a cell divides and it provides the basic instructions for building every protein in the body. Only A,T,C and G are present
Q: RNA
Answer: located chiefly outside the nucleus and can be considered a “molecular slave” of DNA; carries out the orders for protein synthesis issued by DNA. Are single strands of nucleotides. Contain A,G,C and U
Q: Functions of enzymes
Answer: biological catalysts. Speed up and regulate biochemical reactions, but are not used up or changed.
Q: ATP Structure
Answer: is an adenine containing RNA nucleotide, to which 2 additional phosphate groups have been added
Q: Tonicity
Answer: the ability of a solution to change the shape or tone of cells by altering their internal water volume
Q: Isotonic
Answer: solutions with the same concentrations of non-penetrating solutes as those found in cells
Q: Integral proteins function
Answer: To transport across the membrane
Q: hypertonic
Answer: solutions with a higher concentration of non-penetrating solutes than seen in the cell. (causes cells to loose water and shrink)
Q: hypotonic
Answer: solutions that are more dilute than cells. (Causes cells to plump up rapidly as water rushes into them)
Q: membrane potential
Answer: voltage across the membrane
Q: G protein functions in membrane
Answer: act as a middleman or relays between extracellular first messengers and intracellular second messengers that cause responses in the cell
Q: Cytoplasmic organelles
Answer: specialized cellular compartments, each performing its own job to maintain the life of the cell.
Q: cytoplasm
Answer: surrounds the nucleus and is contained by the cell membrane
Q: mitochondria
Answer: Threadlike or lozenge-shaped membranous organelles. In living cells, they squirm, elongate, and change shape almost continuously. They encode information for making a few kinds of proteins, “powerhouse” of the cells
Q: ribosomes
Answer: Small, dark-staining granules composed of proteins and RNA. Each has two globular subunits that fit together like the body and cap of an acorn. Its job is to make proteins
Q: Endoplasmic Reticulum
Answer: An extensive system of interconnected tubes and parallel membranes enclosing fluid-filled cavities. Coiling and twisting though the cytosol, it is continuous with the nuclear membrane and accounts for about half of the cell’s membranes. Its job is to communicate with the cell membrane. Has both smooth (catalyze reactions) and rough (protein maker) parts.
Q: Golgi Apparatus
Answer: Consists of stacked and flattened membranous sacs, shaped like hollow dinner plates. It is known as the “traffic director” Job is to: refine, package,and deliver proteins synthesized on the rough ER.
Q: lysosomes
Answer: Spherical membranous organelles. They are large and abundant within phagocytes. Their job: “garbage disposal” of the cell; enzymes dismantle debris
Q: Peroxisomes
Answer: catalyze metabolic reaction: detoxification of alcohol, rare biochemicals, breakdown of lipids, and bile acids. Most importantly, they neutralize free radicals.
Q: cilia
Answer: Thin hair-like projection from the cell. Move things in one direction. Typically occur in large numbers.
Q: flagella
Answer: long projections on a cell’s surface whose whip like movement helps move the cell.
Q: mitosis
Answer: the series of events that parcel out the replicated DNA of the mother cell to two daughter cells. 4 parts: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase
Q: cytokinesis
Answer: division of the cytoplasm (begins late anaphase and is completed after mitosis)
Q: Major Types of Tissues
Answer: 1. Nervous (internal communication)2. Muscle (contracts to cause movement)3. Epithelial (protects, secretes, absorbs, and filters)4. Connective (supports, protects, and binds together)
Q: Special characteristics of Epithelium
Answer: 1. Polarity2. Specialized contacts3. Supported by connective tissue4. Avascular, but innervated5. Regenerative
Q: Simple epithelia
Answer: Consists of a single cell layer
Q: Stratified Epithelia
Answer: Composed of two or more layers stacked one on top of the other
Q: Squamous Cells
Answer: Flattened and scalelike
Q: Columnar Cells
Answer: Tall and column shaped
Q: Cuboidal Cells
Answer: Boxlike, and approximately as tall as they are wide
Q: Endocrine Glands
Answer: Ductless gland. Produces hormones.
Q: Exocrine Gland
Answer: Secrete their products onto body surfaces and into body cavities. Produces mucous, sweat, oil, and saliva.
Q: Goblet Cell
Answer: unicellular exocrine gland
Q: Common Characteristics of Connective Tissue
Answer: 1. Common origin (all comes from mesenchyme)2. Degrees of vascularity3. Extracellular matrix ( usually made from non-living cells)
Q: Ground substance (matrix)
Answer: the unsaturated material that fills the space between the cells and contains fibers. Made up of tissue, fluid, proteins, and proteoglycans
Q: GAG
Answer: large negatively charged polysaccharides that stick out from the core protein and trap water to make a substance that varies from a fluid to a viscous gel.
Q: collagen fibers
Answer: constructed primarily of the fibrous protein collagen. Stronger than steal. Also known as white fibers.
Q: Elastic fibers
Answer: Contain rubber-like protein elastin that allows them to stretch and recoil. Known as yellow fibers.
Q: Reticular fibers
Answer: Surround small blood vessels and support the soft tissue of organs
Q: Fibroblast
Answer: Cell found in connective tissue proper
Q: Chondroblast
Answer: Cell found in cartilage
Q: Oteoblast
Answer: Cell found in bone
Q: Hematopoietic stem cell
Answer: Produces blood cells
Q: Areolar Tissue
Answer: Most widely used tissue in the body. It is found in all mucous membranes. (Mucus membranes line body cavities open to the exterior)
Q: Adipose Tissue
Answer: A richly vascularized tissue that usually accumulates in the subcutaneous tissue where it acts as a shock absorber, as insulation, and as an energy storage site.
Q: Dense irregular connective tissue
Answer: Found in body sites where tension is exerted from many different directions. It’s found in the skin as the dermis, and it is the fibrous coverings that surround some organs (kidneys).
Q: Dense regular connective tissue
Answer: Forms tendons , aponeuroses, fascia, and ligaments
Q: Types of connective tissue
Answer: Loose (areolar, adipose, and reticular) and dense (dense regular, dense irregular, and elastic.)
Q: Pleura
Answer: The serosa lining of the thiracic wall and lung coverings
Q: Peritoneum
Answer: The serosa lining the abdominopelvic cavity and the viscera
Q: Pericardium
Answer: The serosa enclosing the heart
Q: Tissue repair
Answer: requires that cells divide and migrate, activities that are initiated by wound hormones released by injured cells
Q: Regeneration
Answer: replacement of destroyed tissue with the same kind of tissue
Q: Fibrosis
Answer: involves proliferation of fibrous connective tissue called scar tissue
Q: Neoplasm
Answer: A swelling caused by new abnormal growth
Q: benign
Answer: a noncancerous growth, usually encapsulated
Q: lipoma
Answer: a fatty tumor
Q: fibroid
Answer: a muscle tumor in uterus
Q: angioma
Answer: a birthmark, a tumor composed of blood vessels. not encapsulated
Q: papilloma
Answer: common wart. fixed base with stalk
Q: malignant
Answer: uncontrolled growth in that area. can metastisize (spread)
Q: 3 stages of cancer
Answer: 1. initiation ( mutation)2. promotion ( altered cells proliferate)3. progression (changes to malignant)
Q: Carcinoma
Answer: Affects epithelial tissue. Ex. skin, breast, liver. Usually grows slowly. Spread through lymph vessels.
Q: Sarcoma
Answer: Affects connective tissue. Ex. Bone, muscle, cartilage. Tends to grow rapidly. Spreads through blood.